Walmart Employees And Discrimination Against Women Essay

SUMMARY Walmart periodically has made headlines because someone has accused the discount retailer of discrimination. For that reason Walmart have to settle the matter in a federal lawsuit that charged the company with racial discrimination. And more recent Walmart involved in allegations of discrimination against woman. The equal employment commission charged Walmart with turning down female applicants to fill orders in its distribution center in London, Kentucky, even though they were as least as well qualified as the male applicants who were hired. The basic for the conclusion was that there was a statistically significant pattern of hiring males and turning down females. In a case Walmart interviewed a woman and said can she lift a 150 pound potato bag over her head and the applicant said she can’t. After that interview the women find the same kind of job in a deferent warehouse .But in this case Walmart have to pay $11.7 million to settle the case. After the enforcement of law Walmart have to change their culture and have to bringing more diversity to its management ranks. Walmart appointed more women in the management rank after all those controversies. So far Walmart have one fourth of the women manager .And after a statistics of female customer of Walmart shown that 80% of the customers are female. Walmart’s previous culture was changed by the law and the diversity among the employee. The U.S culture showed us how they discriminate woman in work place. WeShow MoreRelatedSex Discrimination Law Suit Against Walmart861 Words   |  4 Pages Overview of the issue Can a class be made up of more than one million women under a single employer all over the United States? In 2001 female employees at Walmart filed a class action sex discrimination law suit against Walmart stores in the district court of Columbia. The case talks about discrimination going on in the workplace a group of woman who were discriminated by their gender. Betty Dukes and five other woman were being discriminated they were under paid and denied advancement opportunitiesRead MoreWomen Accuse Walmart Of Sex Discrimination863 Words   |  4 PagesWomen accuse Walmart of sex discrimination According to the BBC News, on 9 March 2011, it was reported that the world’s largest retailer, Walmart, was claimed to be the defendant in a case alleging that it discriminated against its women employees. This contexts rose in the USA when six women staff were concerned that they and other women staff were paid less and had few opportunities to gain promotion as a consequence of their gender, while Walmart claimed that they treated all employees equallyRead MoreThe Development Of Walmart.966 Words   |  4 Pages The Development of Walmart Tracy Johnson Nicholas Chabra Cooperate Responsibility and Society January 27, 2016 Introduction This paper concerning Walmart will give a brief history and development story of the retail outlet. The research will also feature the gender discrimination claims that have been made against the retail outlet store. The history and development of Walmart Walmart’s first store was opened up in Rogers, Arkansas in 1962 by Sam Walton. Walton had owned a retail storeRead MoreWalmart and Its Associates Efficient Operator or Neglectful Employer1479 Words   |  6 PagesSexual Discrimination 4 Dominance Policies 4 Unionisation 5 Wal-Mart: Past and new allegations 5 Conclusion 6 References 7 Introduction: Ethical Issues (Appendix A) Wal-Mart had been criticized for its worst CSR practices which includes low wages for the employees (Karen, 2004). Immoral activity of paying low for more and the overtime works had been held (Karen, 2004) .The quantitative records of designations in the company showed that Wal-Mart had sexual discrimination in its organizationRead MoreWalmart Case Study1410 Words   |  6 PagesRagan Fretwell - Case 23: Walmart: But We Do Give Them a 10% Employee Discount Summary/Facts Walmart, one of the largest retailers in the world, was founded by Sam Walton in 1962. The first Walmart opened in Rogers, AR. It has since grown to over 10,300 stores all over the world. Employing over 2 million, it is hard to imagine the largest private employer in the world would ever be accused of being an unfair employee practices. Walmart has seen its share of litigation over the years. LitigationRead MoreThe Importance of Ethical Business Practices: Walmart Law Suites 842 Words   |  4 Pagessome or all employees. One unethical issue which will be the focus for this issues study is sexual discrimination. . Employees are protected from all kinds of discrimination, which include the discrimination of age, disability, race and sex, at all stages of employment including employment, dismissal and all stages in between. Sexual discrimination is that of people on the grounds of sex and can affect their employment, pay or opportunities within the business and mostly affects women. Sexual discriminationRead MoreGender Discrimination : Women Rights Essay861 Words   |  4 PagesGender Discrimination: Women Rights Since the 1840’s, women have stood for their rights and have successfully made a difference in the world. However, gender discrimination is still a major issue for women. Gender discrimination involves treating someone unfavorably because of that person’s sex. It can also involve treating someone less favorably because of his or her connection with an organization or group that is associated with a certain type of sex. Women have been victims for the past 90 yearsRead MoreDiscrimination : Women And Color Discrimination Essay1694 Words   |  7 PagesGoodwin 4 Discrimination: Cassie Goodwin Race and color discrimination has dated back to biblical times. It has continued throughout history. Racism in schools have been the most current and frequently talked about discrimination in the last 100 years. In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Oliver Brown. Brown v. Board of education was a landmark court case that changed discrimination in the education world. It stated, No state shall make or enforce any law which shall ... deny to any personRead MoreWomen s Rights Opportunity Commission1376 Words   |  6 Pages Women in the Workforce â€Å"Women should be seen and not heard.† This was told to a female employee at a Walmart in Franklin, Tennessee after she was denied a management position. She and other female workers were told that it was a man’s job therefore disqualifying them. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission began combating employment-related discrimination in the early 1960s through laws such as Title VII, which made sex discrimination illegal for employers. Also the Equal Pay Act of 1963 madeRead MoreEssay on Where Are Womens Rights?1616 Words   |  7 PagesWhere are Women Rights? Did not God create everyone equal and gave them his or her rights? Did God ever say that people should treat every human differently based on his or her gender? Who does not know about gender discrimination? Gender Discrimination, which is also called sex discrimination, was gone in the twentieth century right! This is not true. Gender discrimination still exists today around the world in many countries including the United States. Women are being discriminated directly

American Influences on Syria - 551 Words

### just delete it ´s been merged ### Syrian Economy Syria’s economy has evolved, and molded itself into what it is now. But behind every great achievement there is a beginning. And that beginning was when Syria became independent in 1946. When Syria finally became independent, the country was able to do as it pleased. Since Syria had just become a country, it lacked resources for economic prosperity. But slowly, agriculture began controlling the country’s economy. However, by the 1960s, when the Baath party became the major political force in the country, Syria’s plan for its economy completely changed. But slowly by the mid-1960s everything went back to normal and the Baath party had the economy under control. By the 1970s, Syria achieved high rates of economic growth. The dramatic rise of the world oil prices led to increased production from domestic refineries. And high prices from agricultural and oil exports, and the fact that Syrians began to work in oil-rich Arab states encouraged growth. By the end of the decade, the Syrian economy had transitioned from agriculture based economy to being dominated by the service, industrial, and commercial sectors. Development of irrigation, electricity, water, road building projects, and the expansion of health services and education to rural areas contributed to prosperity. By the mid-1980s, Syria’s economic boom collapsed as a result of the rapid drop of world oil prices, lower export income, drought affecting agriculturalShow MoreRelatedAmerican Influences on Syria1279 Words   |  5 PagesSyria’s Government Syria and America both have very similar governments. There are only a few assets which makes syrian government Republic and us a Federal Republic. Syria’s government has three branches: legislative, executive and judicial ( Just like America!). The executive branch is made up of a president, two vice presidents, a prime minister and a cabinet. The president term last for only 7 years, and the president must be a muslim. The president has the right to name ministers withinRead MoreSyrian Civil War Case Study1326 Words   |  6 PagesIn the Fall of 2016, as the United States presidential election approached, a civil war in Syria continued with no end in sight. The Syrian civil war has brought with it a great deal of death and destruction; more than 480,000, many of whom are civilians, were estimated to have been killed as of February 2016, with the death toll rising daily. Running on a platform of America-first, Republican presidential nominee Donald Trump, advocated against intervention in Syria’s war, unless the interventionRead MoreSovereignty And Non Interference During The Cold War1287 Words   |  6 Pagesin Ukraine and Syria, among others, are only the latest examples of the erosion of sovereignty and exter nal interference in internal matters. European powers of the yore exercised sovereign rights without significant external interference. They were driven by their own interest or their close allies in the shifting alliances for nearly 300 years. They fought between themselves on the continent to establish their supremacy and as well as overseas to expand their spheres of influence. Their own realRead MoreThe Syrian Civil War Crisis1736 Words   |  7 Pages(INTERNATIONAL SECURITY AFFAIRS) SUBJECT: Proposed Strategy for Dealing with Syria POLICY AND OBJECTIVE: the United States desired end state for the Syrian civil war is to end the conflict and stop civilian casualties and to restore peace and stability in the region. Moreover, the objective of the U.S. is to protect its national interest and to deny terrorist safe havens on Syrian territory, limit Iran’s influence while maintaining U.S. influence in the region. This policy supports the creation of a new, tolerantRead MoreU.S. and The Middle East Essay893 Words   |  4 PagesFirst, with the emergence of the cold war between the Soviet Union and the U.S., policymakers began to recognize the importance of the Middle East as a strategic area in containing Soviet influence. This also coincides with the U.S. becoming increasingly wary of Arab nationalism and the threat it posed to U.S. influence. Secondly, the emergence of the new Israeli state in 1948 further deepened U.S. policy and involvement in the region while also creating friction between the U.S. and A rab states whichRead MoreUsg Case Study1730 Words   |  7 PagesSWEG(A) IRAN’S PROXY WAR IN SYRIA EXSUM SUBMITTED TO MR. AHAB AND MR. KALDANI OF THE LANGUAGE, REGIONAL, EDUCATION and CULTURE PROGRAM SPECIAL WARFARE EDUCATION GROUP (AIRBORNE) BY CPT TANNER R. DERFLINGER FT. BRAGG, NC DECEMBER 2017 INTRODUCTION With the proclaimed defeat of ISIS, current ties with Russia, and the seemingly inevitable defeat of rebel forces against the Assad Regime, the Iranian government has the opportunity to spread influence within the Central Command (CENTCOM)Read MoreEssay about American Foreign Policy in Syria1237 Words   |  5 PagesThere is an increasingly growing global controversy about whether the United States should intervene in the Syrian conflict, and whether this intervention should be military or strategic. The U.S. has recently avoided interfering militarily in Syria or providing the rebels with direct support, but admitted the presence of the Syrian opposition. However, the U.S. has been criticized for its non-intervention policy, especially with the rise in the level of violence and the spread of conflict to otherRead MoreSyria Civil War Essay1673 Words   |  7 PagesName: Instructor: Course: Date: United States Intervention in Syria Introduction There are reports to suggest that mass casualty of chemical attack is unleashed in the suburbs of Damascus and this influences the long and contentious debate on the possible United States intervention in Syria civil war. According to reports, forces loyal to Syrian president Bashar Al Assad attacked the opposition controlling areas within the suburb with chemical weapons, where hundreds of civilians included women andRead MoreThe Radical Social Nationalist Party851 Words   |  4 Pagesimported through the French mandate into the Syrian elite classes. The arrival of the SSNP during the early 1930s provided a backdrop the Marxist influence of Ba’ath party officials that had transposed Marxist ideology into the nationalist movement. The founder of the SSNP, Atun Sa’adeh, was a leading figure in the nationalist movement to transform Syria into socialist nation, which was primarily based on the foundation of European education that the French had imposed as part of their colonial policiesRead MoreSyria Case Study1238 Words   |  5 PagesFor almost a decade Syria has not enjoyed peace. The war in Syria has polarized countries in the Middle East, Europe and the America. The war has led to countries taking sides depending on the interests of their leaders and the country as a whole. In the process countries from Europe, America and Asia have entered into a union that they deem fit to promote their agendas (G. Friedman 2017). This union is what is now known as the axis 1 geopolitics. Even though the countries may have different individual

Revenue Allocation Formula in Nigeria Essay Example For Students

Revenue Allocation Formula in Nigeria Essay REVENUE ALLOCATION FORMULA IN NIGERIA INTRODUCTION Prior to the discovery of oil in Nigeria, other sectors of the economy thrived. Agriculture, for instance, was a major source of revenue for the Western Region. The Eastern Region that was less endowed devised other sources of revenue. All this has however changed since the discovery of oil in the country. This has led to the demise of the other productive sectors of the economy. In fact, Nigerians are poorer today than they were in the pre-oil boom days. This is mainly because of the methodology of sharing the oil revenue. The struggle for the control of the oil wealth has led to an unfortunate shift from a revenue-oriented principle to an expenditure-oriented principle of revenue allocation. According to a former Governor of one of the oil producing states: It is an act of self-deception for anyone to argue that there is nothing wrong with the revenue formula. We have had basically two systems of revenue allocation in Nigeria. We will write a custom essay on Revenue Allocation Formula in Nigeria specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The first system which we practiced during the First Republic allowed the North to keep the proceeds from its groundnut and cotton, the West to keep the proceeds from its cocoa, and the East to keep the proceeds from coal and oil produce. Then we changed the system so that the Federal Government got its hands on the proceeds from on-shore and off-shore crude petroleum proceeds, and yet we dont expect the minorities in the oil-producing areas to perceive that is an injustice done to them. The oil-producing minorities have a point that the rule of the revenue allocation game was changed to disfavor them (Professor Bolaji Akinyemi, COMET, June 6, 2001). It is against the backdrop of the preceding assertion, delivered by a Nigeria academic and a delegate to the National Political Reform Conference, that the complicated discussion regarding the revenue allocation formula at the National Political Reform Conference might be visualized. The South-South zone (in the imagined or putative division of Nigeria into six geo-political zones) insists at this confabulation that in order to address past anomalies in the allocation scheme that it should be given 25% instead of 13% (or 17%) as a first step toward boosting the percentage to 50%. The request made to the conference flowed from the environment devastation of the region and for development befitting the area that lays the golden egg. Having personally flown over the South-South zone and traveled by road in the egion, I can attest to the lamentable condition in the area. In spite of the empirical evidence to support the claims of the South-South at the confab, the north, as represented by some of its oligarchs argue against a change in the formula that would address the needs of the ethnic minorities whose territory houses the countrys bread winner-crude oil. The north argues for a 17% derivation for the oil-producing area. The attitude (and expression) of Umaru Dik ko, representing the interest of the north at this conference, is analogous to that which he was alleged to have affirmed in 1994. Indeed, he noted, proverbially, his concern regarding the inauguration of a National Conference set up by the late Abacha administration-a conference that was intended to work out the modalities for the formation of the Nigeria state. He said: No man becomes a hero by selling his fathers house to buy a land (West Africa, February 14-20, 1994, p. 251). What Dikko was implying, arguably, was that Abacha (a Northerner) was, by the nature and scope of the National Conference that he had set up, selling off the northern interests without being cognizant of what he would get in return for the north. Indeed, Dikko is determined at this meeting to represent the interest of the north come hell or high water. He and his northern colleagues should be aware also that the South-South zone should and must defend the areas interest. But the issue of revenue allocation formula is so serious that it really calls for a New Thinking-a Rational Thinking by the actors at this juncture of the conference. That Nigeria has a federal system of government (at least on paper) is a given. What this arrangement implies is that Nigerians could live and work in any part of the country. Therefore should the South-South region develop substantially, as a result of the 25-50% revenue allocation from oil, all Nigerians will benefit from it. By this I mean that Nigerians from any part of the federation could move to the region to work and to contribute to the growth of the area. After all, Nigerians from the south who were domiciled in the north and operated their businesses in the region have been part of the engine of development both in the pre- and post- civil war eras. In the same vein, too, northerners who might migrate to the South-South zone will also participate in the areas development. .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .postImageUrl , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:hover , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:visited , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:active { border:0!important; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:active , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: I felt like Teo EssayIn all, that bargaining and compromising are central tenets of a democratic dispensation should not be lost in the present political fury to promote individual, parochial and regional centrifugal interests at the expense of national cohesion. The revenue and resources generated in the country are shared among three tiers of government: Federal, state and local government according to their constitutional responsibilities. The internal autonomy of 1946 coupled with the sharing of constitutional responsibilities raised the problem of revenue allocation in Nigeria. In an effort to find an acceptable formulae for sharing of revenue in Nigeria, as many as mine commissions were set up between 1946 and 1988. The revenue allocations commissions appointed in Nigeria to recommended acceptable formulae so far included: THE PHILLIPSON COMMISSION (1946) This commission recommended derivation and even development as the main principles for revenue allocation. THE HICKS PHILLIPSON COMMISSION (1951) This commission recommended that revenue in Nigeria should be allocated based on the principles of derivation, need and national interest. THE CHICKS COMMISSION (1953) Derivation and fiscal autonomy were the principle chicks commission recommended for the sharing of revenue in Nigeria. THE RAISMAN COMMISSION (1958) This commission, which recommended for the creation of Distribution Pool Account (DPA) with fixed regional proportional shares, favored the principles of derivation, fiscal autonomy, population and even development for revenue sharing. It allocated 40% to the North, the East 3194 the West 24% and Southern Cameroon 5%. THE BINNS COMMISSION (1964) This commission adopted the Raisman principles but altered the shares of the regions in the following order: The North 42% East 30%, West 20% and Mid-West 5%. THE DINAS COMMISSION (1968) The report of this commission, which was rejected by the government recommended derivation, need and balanced development tax efforts. THE ABOYADE TECHNICAL COMMITTEE (1977) The report of this committee, which was rejected on the ground of being too technical, recommended the principles of equality of access to development opportunities (25%) national minimum standards for national integration (22%). bsorptive capacity (20%), independent revenue effort (18%) and fiscal efficiency (15%). The commission allocated 57% of the federal revenue to the federal government, 30% to state government, 10% to local government and 3% to special fund. THE OKIGBO COMMISSION (1980) This commission known as the presidential commission headed by economics guru Dr. Pius Okigbo recommended the principles of equality (40%) , population (40%), social development (15%) and internal revenue effort (5%). The commission allocated 53% of the federal revenue to the federal government, 30% to state, 10% to local government and 7% to special fund. PRINCIPLE CONSIDEREDED IN THE ALLOCATION OF REVENUE IN NIGERIA AND PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED. In the previous chapter, we emphasized several commissions set up to find acceptable formula for distribution of national resources. The commissions recommended certain principles for national recourses distribution or allocation. In spite of all these commissions set up in the past, Nigeria is yet to find out an acceptable revenue allocation formula for the country. In fact lack of generally acceptable revenue allocation formula is one of the insurmountable problems confronting Nigeria governments and) earning for urgent attention. Below are the principles considered in the allocation of revenue in Nigeria and problems associated. PRINCIPLE CONSIDERED IN THE ALLOCATION OF REVENUE IN NIGERIA POPULATION: This principles call for allocation of revenue according to population in such a manner that areas with high population should get high revenue. UNIFORM DEVELOPMENT: Even development of the country is the main concern of this principle and therefore calls for allocation of mineral resources to underdeveloped areas to enable them catch up with the more developed areas. NEEDS This principle implies that distributions of revenue should be based on the development needs of an area. NATIONAL INTEREST: This principle suggests that the interest of the nation should be the guiding principles in revenue allocation. EQUALITY OF UNITS: This principles advocate% equal allocation of revenue to all states irrespective of their sizes, population, needs, level of development etc. MINIMUM NATIONAL STANDARDS: This principle implies that revenue should be allocated to all component states so that they maintain stated functions such as education and health. MISCELLANEOUS: Other principles considered in allocation of national resources include: fiscal autonomy, fiscal efficiency, access to development opportunities, tax efforts, social development, internal revenue effort etc. PROBLEMS OF REVENUE ALLOCATION IN NIGERIA The principles considered in the national resources distribution have given birth to many problems as we are going to highlights below. CENSUS IRREGULARITIES Census, periodical counting of population of a nation usualIy per decade. Statistical data collected in census is used to access population of an area, level of development, number of infrastructure among other things. .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .postImageUrl , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:hover , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:visited , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:active { border:0!important; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:active , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Trifles EssayIn a situation where principles for national resources distribution recommended allocating large portion of revenue to area with high population, problems arise. The problems of census irregularities occur for the fact that principles for national resources distribution recommended allocation to high-populated area. Since Nigeria got independence in year 1960, she had had about five national censuses conducted, but many of them gave accurate figure simply because of reason mentioned earlier. It is obvious that inaccuracy in population data would not cease as far as these formulae is in play NIGER- DELTA CRISIS Nigeria is blessed with natural resources of which mineral resources are one of them. Mineral resources such as crude oil are found in Niger-Delta region. Before agricultural products like palm produce is booming business in Nigeria, which increased its foreign exchange: thereafter, petroleum, refined products of crude oil take after palm produce. This has promoted Nigeria economy since then. There had been a protest against Nigeria government by people of Niger-Delta over allocation formulae adopted by federal government. They are also protesting for under development of their area in that resources are derived from their area. Niger-Delta crisis has been fueled by lack of generally acceptable formulae for national resources distribution. QUEST FOR STATE CREATION Considering the principles for revenue allocation its can be deducted that it is being shared into three federal, state and local government. For this every reason, quest for state creation has been on increase. State creation has never been done without some negative impart left as justice can never be given on a platter of time. State creation has constituted an insurmountable problem in Nigeria as it is under consideration in national resources distribution. CONCLUSION Derivation is the only revenue oriented principle of revenue allocation, unlike other principles (such as population and equality of state), which are expenditure oriented. As revenue oriented criterion, it serves as a major factor for the promotion of the most desired â€Å"national interest† of the country. It creates satisfaction for the producer of the revenue by compensating him for his efforts, sufferings, deprivations and ecological damages associated with the generation of the revenue such as in the oil industry. There is thus need to revert back to a revenue generation oriented principle of revenue allocation. Admittedly, derivation if applied today will severely disadvantage most of the non-oil producing states. Although this is true, this will only be in the short run. This is so since most of them will have no choice but to develop other sources of income. We must not forget that the country is well endowed with other productive assets and resources. As already mentioned, prior to the discovery of oil, agriculture was the main stay of the economy. The struggle for control of the oil revenue has been the main reason for the decimation of the agricultural sector of the Nigerian economy. A policy shift, which places more emphasis on derivation, will therefore force the non-oil states to refocus on the areas of their comparative advantage like agriculture. Admittedly, this will not be easy as the revenue and tax laws have since been over-centralized all in the bid to justify the prominent role of the Federal Government in the Nigerian polity. There is thus the need to give more powers for revenue creation and control back to the states. Such states will therefore be in a position to take into consideration their peculiar circumstances before determining their tax and revenue laws. REFERENCES Banerjee, A. J. Dola do, J. W. Galbraith, and D. F. Hendry (1993), Cointegration, Error-Correction, and the Econometric Analysis of Non-Stationary Data, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Berg, A. and C. Pattillo (1999), â€Å"Are Currency Crises Predictable? A Test†, IMF Staff Papers, 46: 107-138. Blanchard, O. –J. and S. Fischer (1989, Lectures on Macroeconomics, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Busari, T. D. and K. W. Olayiwola (1999), â€Å"Stabilization Policy in Nigeria under Alternative Exchange Rate Regimes: A Postulated Empirical macro-Model Approach†, Central Bank of Nigeria Economic and Financial Review, vol. 37 (1), March: 21-35. Caballero, R. J. and V. Corbo (1989), â€Å"The Effect of Real Exchange Rate Uncertainty on Exports: Empirical Evidence†, World Bank Economic Review, vol. 3: 263-278. Cagan, P. D. (1956), â€Å"The Money Dynamics of Hyperinflation†, in M. Friedman (ed. ), Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money, pp. 23-117, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Corrinne, H and R. N. McCauley (2003), Living with Flexible exchange Rates: Issues and Recent Experience in Inflation Targeting Emerging Markets Economies†, BIS Working Papers 30, February. Dornbusch, R. and S. Fischer (1993), â€Å"Moderate Inflation†, World Bank Economic Review, vol. 7: 1-44.

Revenue Allocation Formula in Nigeria Essay Example For Students

Revenue Allocation Formula in Nigeria Essay REVENUE ALLOCATION FORMULA IN NIGERIA INTRODUCTION Prior to the discovery of oil in Nigeria, other sectors of the economy thrived. Agriculture, for instance, was a major source of revenue for the Western Region. The Eastern Region that was less endowed devised other sources of revenue. All this has however changed since the discovery of oil in the country. This has led to the demise of the other productive sectors of the economy. In fact, Nigerians are poorer today than they were in the pre-oil boom days. This is mainly because of the methodology of sharing the oil revenue. The struggle for the control of the oil wealth has led to an unfortunate shift from a revenue-oriented principle to an expenditure-oriented principle of revenue allocation. According to a former Governor of one of the oil producing states: It is an act of self-deception for anyone to argue that there is nothing wrong with the revenue formula. We have had basically two systems of revenue allocation in Nigeria. We will write a custom essay on Revenue Allocation Formula in Nigeria specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The first system which we practiced during the First Republic allowed the North to keep the proceeds from its groundnut and cotton, the West to keep the proceeds from its cocoa, and the East to keep the proceeds from coal and oil produce. Then we changed the system so that the Federal Government got its hands on the proceeds from on-shore and off-shore crude petroleum proceeds, and yet we dont expect the minorities in the oil-producing areas to perceive that is an injustice done to them. The oil-producing minorities have a point that the rule of the revenue allocation game was changed to disfavor them (Professor Bolaji Akinyemi, COMET, June 6, 2001). It is against the backdrop of the preceding assertion, delivered by a Nigeria academic and a delegate to the National Political Reform Conference, that the complicated discussion regarding the revenue allocation formula at the National Political Reform Conference might be visualized. The South-South zone (in the imagined or putative division of Nigeria into six geo-political zones) insists at this confabulation that in order to address past anomalies in the allocation scheme that it should be given 25% instead of 13% (or 17%) as a first step toward boosting the percentage to 50%. The request made to the conference flowed from the environment devastation of the region and for development befitting the area that lays the golden egg. Having personally flown over the South-South zone and traveled by road in the egion, I can attest to the lamentable condition in the area. In spite of the empirical evidence to support the claims of the South-South at the confab, the north, as represented by some of its oligarchs argue against a change in the formula that would address the needs of the ethnic minorities whose territory houses the countrys bread winner-crude oil. The north argues for a 17% derivation for the oil-producing area. The attitude (and expression) of Umaru Dik ko, representing the interest of the north at this conference, is analogous to that which he was alleged to have affirmed in 1994. Indeed, he noted, proverbially, his concern regarding the inauguration of a National Conference set up by the late Abacha administration-a conference that was intended to work out the modalities for the formation of the Nigeria state. He said: No man becomes a hero by selling his fathers house to buy a land (West Africa, February 14-20, 1994, p. 251). What Dikko was implying, arguably, was that Abacha (a Northerner) was, by the nature and scope of the National Conference that he had set up, selling off the northern interests without being cognizant of what he would get in return for the north. Indeed, Dikko is determined at this meeting to represent the interest of the north come hell or high water. He and his northern colleagues should be aware also that the South-South zone should and must defend the areas interest. But the issue of revenue allocation formula is so serious that it really calls for a New Thinking-a Rational Thinking by the actors at this juncture of the conference. That Nigeria has a federal system of government (at least on paper) is a given. What this arrangement implies is that Nigerians could live and work in any part of the country. Therefore should the South-South region develop substantially, as a result of the 25-50% revenue allocation from oil, all Nigerians will benefit from it. By this I mean that Nigerians from any part of the federation could move to the region to work and to contribute to the growth of the area. After all, Nigerians from the south who were domiciled in the north and operated their businesses in the region have been part of the engine of development both in the pre- and post- civil war eras. In the same vein, too, northerners who might migrate to the South-South zone will also participate in the areas development. .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .postImageUrl , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:hover , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:visited , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:active { border:0!important; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:active , .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70 .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc73bc0a5a63f118bc65ca78b44bedd70:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: I felt like Teo EssayIn all, that bargaining and compromising are central tenets of a democratic dispensation should not be lost in the present political fury to promote individual, parochial and regional centrifugal interests at the expense of national cohesion. The revenue and resources generated in the country are shared among three tiers of government: Federal, state and local government according to their constitutional responsibilities. The internal autonomy of 1946 coupled with the sharing of constitutional responsibilities raised the problem of revenue allocation in Nigeria. In an effort to find an acceptable formulae for sharing of revenue in Nigeria, as many as mine commissions were set up between 1946 and 1988. The revenue allocations commissions appointed in Nigeria to recommended acceptable formulae so far included: THE PHILLIPSON COMMISSION (1946) This commission recommended derivation and even development as the main principles for revenue allocation. THE HICKS PHILLIPSON COMMISSION (1951) This commission recommended that revenue in Nigeria should be allocated based on the principles of derivation, need and national interest. THE CHICKS COMMISSION (1953) Derivation and fiscal autonomy were the principle chicks commission recommended for the sharing of revenue in Nigeria. THE RAISMAN COMMISSION (1958) This commission, which recommended for the creation of Distribution Pool Account (DPA) with fixed regional proportional shares, favored the principles of derivation, fiscal autonomy, population and even development for revenue sharing. It allocated 40% to the North, the East 3194 the West 24% and Southern Cameroon 5%. THE BINNS COMMISSION (1964) This commission adopted the Raisman principles but altered the shares of the regions in the following order: The North 42% East 30%, West 20% and Mid-West 5%. THE DINAS COMMISSION (1968) The report of this commission, which was rejected by the government recommended derivation, need and balanced development tax efforts. THE ABOYADE TECHNICAL COMMITTEE (1977) The report of this committee, which was rejected on the ground of being too technical, recommended the principles of equality of access to development opportunities (25%) national minimum standards for national integration (22%). bsorptive capacity (20%), independent revenue effort (18%) and fiscal efficiency (15%). The commission allocated 57% of the federal revenue to the federal government, 30% to state government, 10% to local government and 3% to special fund. THE OKIGBO COMMISSION (1980) This commission known as the presidential commission headed by economics guru Dr. Pius Okigbo recommended the principles of equality (40%) , population (40%), social development (15%) and internal revenue effort (5%). The commission allocated 53% of the federal revenue to the federal government, 30% to state, 10% to local government and 7% to special fund. PRINCIPLE CONSIDEREDED IN THE ALLOCATION OF REVENUE IN NIGERIA AND PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED. In the previous chapter, we emphasized several commissions set up to find acceptable formula for distribution of national resources. The commissions recommended certain principles for national recourses distribution or allocation. In spite of all these commissions set up in the past, Nigeria is yet to find out an acceptable revenue allocation formula for the country. In fact lack of generally acceptable revenue allocation formula is one of the insurmountable problems confronting Nigeria governments and) earning for urgent attention. Below are the principles considered in the allocation of revenue in Nigeria and problems associated. PRINCIPLE CONSIDERED IN THE ALLOCATION OF REVENUE IN NIGERIA POPULATION: This principles call for allocation of revenue according to population in such a manner that areas with high population should get high revenue. UNIFORM DEVELOPMENT: Even development of the country is the main concern of this principle and therefore calls for allocation of mineral resources to underdeveloped areas to enable them catch up with the more developed areas. NEEDS This principle implies that distributions of revenue should be based on the development needs of an area. NATIONAL INTEREST: This principle suggests that the interest of the nation should be the guiding principles in revenue allocation. EQUALITY OF UNITS: This principles advocate% equal allocation of revenue to all states irrespective of their sizes, population, needs, level of development etc. MINIMUM NATIONAL STANDARDS: This principle implies that revenue should be allocated to all component states so that they maintain stated functions such as education and health. MISCELLANEOUS: Other principles considered in allocation of national resources include: fiscal autonomy, fiscal efficiency, access to development opportunities, tax efforts, social development, internal revenue effort etc. PROBLEMS OF REVENUE ALLOCATION IN NIGERIA The principles considered in the national resources distribution have given birth to many problems as we are going to highlights below. CENSUS IRREGULARITIES Census, periodical counting of population of a nation usualIy per decade. Statistical data collected in census is used to access population of an area, level of development, number of infrastructure among other things. .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .postImageUrl , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:hover , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:visited , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:active { border:0!important; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:active , .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33 .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uef6716a452dda807b81f34dc54efcb33:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Trifles EssayIn a situation where principles for national resources distribution recommended allocating large portion of revenue to area with high population, problems arise. The problems of census irregularities occur for the fact that principles for national resources distribution recommended allocation to high-populated area. Since Nigeria got independence in year 1960, she had had about five national censuses conducted, but many of them gave accurate figure simply because of reason mentioned earlier. It is obvious that inaccuracy in population data would not cease as far as these formulae is in play NIGER- DELTA CRISIS Nigeria is blessed with natural resources of which mineral resources are one of them. Mineral resources such as crude oil are found in Niger-Delta region. Before agricultural products like palm produce is booming business in Nigeria, which increased its foreign exchange: thereafter, petroleum, refined products of crude oil take after palm produce. This has promoted Nigeria economy since then. There had been a protest against Nigeria government by people of Niger-Delta over allocation formulae adopted by federal government. They are also protesting for under development of their area in that resources are derived from their area. Niger-Delta crisis has been fueled by lack of generally acceptable formulae for national resources distribution. QUEST FOR STATE CREATION Considering the principles for revenue allocation its can be deducted that it is being shared into three federal, state and local government. For this every reason, quest for state creation has been on increase. State creation has never been done without some negative impart left as justice can never be given on a platter of time. State creation has constituted an insurmountable problem in Nigeria as it is under consideration in national resources distribution. CONCLUSION Derivation is the only revenue oriented principle of revenue allocation, unlike other principles (such as population and equality of state), which are expenditure oriented. As revenue oriented criterion, it serves as a major factor for the promotion of the most desired â€Å"national interest† of the country. It creates satisfaction for the producer of the revenue by compensating him for his efforts, sufferings, deprivations and ecological damages associated with the generation of the revenue such as in the oil industry. There is thus need to revert back to a revenue generation oriented principle of revenue allocation. Admittedly, derivation if applied today will severely disadvantage most of the non-oil producing states. Although this is true, this will only be in the short run. This is so since most of them will have no choice but to develop other sources of income. We must not forget that the country is well endowed with other productive assets and resources. As already mentioned, prior to the discovery of oil, agriculture was the main stay of the economy. The struggle for control of the oil revenue has been the main reason for the decimation of the agricultural sector of the Nigerian economy. A policy shift, which places more emphasis on derivation, will therefore force the non-oil states to refocus on the areas of their comparative advantage like agriculture. Admittedly, this will not be easy as the revenue and tax laws have since been over-centralized all in the bid to justify the prominent role of the Federal Government in the Nigerian polity. There is thus the need to give more powers for revenue creation and control back to the states. Such states will therefore be in a position to take into consideration their peculiar circumstances before determining their tax and revenue laws. REFERENCES Banerjee, A. J. Dola do, J. W. Galbraith, and D. F. Hendry (1993), Cointegration, Error-Correction, and the Econometric Analysis of Non-Stationary Data, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Berg, A. and C. Pattillo (1999), â€Å"Are Currency Crises Predictable? A Test†, IMF Staff Papers, 46: 107-138. Blanchard, O. –J. and S. Fischer (1989, Lectures on Macroeconomics, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Busari, T. D. and K. W. Olayiwola (1999), â€Å"Stabilization Policy in Nigeria under Alternative Exchange Rate Regimes: A Postulated Empirical macro-Model Approach†, Central Bank of Nigeria Economic and Financial Review, vol. 37 (1), March: 21-35. Caballero, R. J. and V. Corbo (1989), â€Å"The Effect of Real Exchange Rate Uncertainty on Exports: Empirical Evidence†, World Bank Economic Review, vol. 3: 263-278. Cagan, P. D. (1956), â€Å"The Money Dynamics of Hyperinflation†, in M. Friedman (ed. ), Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money, pp. 23-117, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Corrinne, H and R. N. McCauley (2003), Living with Flexible exchange Rates: Issues and Recent Experience in Inflation Targeting Emerging Markets Economies†, BIS Working Papers 30, February. Dornbusch, R. and S. Fischer (1993), â€Å"Moderate Inflation†, World Bank Economic Review, vol. 7: 1-44.

Understanding the Role of Power in Decision Making free essay sample

These definitions emphasize the presents of individual bases of power or the need for power. Power is left out of management and organization literature because it is incompatible with discussions on ideology and values.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pfeffer then discusses the functions served by management writing. Management writing focuses on rationality, and efficiency. Discussions on power and politics do not fit well with discussions on rationality and efficiency. Politics and power will actually work against discussions on rationality and efficiency and so therefore it is left out of literature. Next, Pfeffer discusses four decision making models. He first discuses Rational and Bureaucratic models which are both popular in literature and then discusses Decision Process and Political Power Models. Rational Choice Models   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This model is not only one of the most popular models but is often cited as the actual process used by decision makers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The model follows a four step process which reflects the axiom that â€Å"behavior reflects purpose or intention. We will write a custom essay sample on Understanding the Role of Power in Decision Making or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In other words behavior in an organization is not accidental and random but is instead reflective of pre-existing guides.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Here is the four step process: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Goals and Objectives: The model presumes that an organization has goals and objectives unique to the organization. These goals must be consistent with one another †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Rational Choice: The model than requires that there be a set of alternative choices from which to choice. This list usually limited and will end when the correct choice is found. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Assessment of the Outcomes: An assessment of the outcomes is required for each choice.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Final decision is made. Bureaucratic Model of Decision Making   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This model substitutes procedural rationality (rational choice model) for substantive rationality; rather than having choices made to maximize values, choices are made according to rules and processes which have been adaptive and effective in the past.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Uncertainty tends to be avoided in that, rather than making comprehensive assessments of risk and probabilities, decisions are made with relatively short time horizons. Decision Process Models   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although they are very similar to the bureaucratic model of organizations, decisions in this model differ in that they presume less rationality and more randomness in organizational functioning.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In this model, it is presumed that policy is the outcome of a choice made by one or several decision makers. Which choice is made is determined by the situation in which the decision maker finds himself. This situation, in turn, largely caused by the processes preceding the choice. It is impossible, then, to predict policies without knowing the details of the preceding processes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Power does not add much to the prediction of behavior within an organization.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Garbage Can Model is a sub-model of the decision process model. In this model decisions are the result of   independent streams within an organization. Political Models of Organizations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The model states that organizations are pluralistic and divided into various interest groups and units. These units usually conflict and therefore conflict is seen as normal or at least customary.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Action within organizations is the result of bargaining and compromising, and therefore the decision seldom reflects the preferences of any one group. However the more powerful groups will receive the greatest rewards and their desires will be met best.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This is a very democratic mode, which takes a close look at how individuals and groups relate to one another. However it does not have as much scientific creditability as other models do.